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| Folk Meds,Cancer Treatments,Herbal Medicine Wheel |
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 Folk medicine is traditional healing practice which is used for alleviating illness and injury and provides aid while giving birth to child.
It is not a scientific medicine but folk medicine is more formal and systematic medicine.
Folk medicine uses many plant derived remedies and by using folk medicine, you can keep your self away from modern medical services.
Folk medicines are available for curing both physical and mental illness.
You can use plant or tree roots, fruits, insects, and food items for treating cancer, malaria, warts, sore throats to arthritis, impotence, high blood pressure and infected wounds.
Folk medicine from different plants:
Some plants are also used as folk medicines. The below folk remedies are used for treating many physical disorders.
- Chokecherry plant as remedy: It is used for treating pneumonia. It also treats cold, cough and clears your throat. You can use it by boiling chokecherry plant bark and make it as tea.
- Juniper plant as remedy: It is used for treating kidney ailments. You can use it by crushing berries and mix it in tea and consume.
- Labrador plant as remedy: You can use the leaf of Labrador plant for having relief over cold, flu and stomach upset. First you have to dry these leaves and make it into tea. Use this mixture as folk remedy.
- Dandelion plant as remedy: This plant leaves are boiled freshly and used as the blood purifier.
- Balsam plant as remedy: You can use the sap of balsam fir for healing a cut by spreading sap over the cut.
- Haw thorn bush as remedy: It is used for treating sore throat. This is used by boiling the bush and gargling with liquid.
Many plants synthesize the substances and are used for maintaining health condition. All the above remedies are folk remedies which are used for treating different physical disorders.
Natural Folk medicine as herbal medicine:
- Fresh steaks and poltice is used for treating infected wounds.
- Molasses is used for treating sore throat and used for treating baby’s teeth problem.
- Fresh cucumber and wet bag tea is used for treating bad eye.
- Garlic is used for reducing high cholesterol and high blood pressure.
- Juice from nim leaves is used for curing malaria.
Natural folk medicines are safe to use as they will not cause any side effects and chemical reactions. These are also called as home remedies.
These remedies are used for curing different ailments such as abdominal pain, chest pain, blood pressure, blood poisoning, anemia, arthritis, bone crackling, burning tongue, bladder infection, diarrhea, dermatitis, dehydration, dry skin, ear ache, eczema [Eczema Treatment] and many other skin diseases and physical disorders.
Different methods of folk medicine used in treatment with the help of herbs, animal parts, ceremony, conjuring, magic, witchcraft and many other means are used. This treatment is done apart from medical science.
Folk medicine is simple and easy to use. There are no risks and side effects involved in taking this medicine.
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There are a number of cancer treatments that have a history of success, without the toxicity of the so-called conventional treatments.
Also see this article from DietNet covering approaches to healing cancer.
This article is a good summary of natural treatments for cancer. It was sent to us, and unfortunately we don't know who wrote it. But the important thing is not who wrote it, but if it checks out, and it does!
"If I had cancer, I would do the following things:
I would do blood electrification with our Black Box to clear the blood of any microbes (bacteria + virus) that might be contributing to cancer. Various researchers have noticed that cancer patients have tube or worm like bacteria in their blood. This creature is either inside or on the outside of red blood cells and may not be visible unless the blood is traumatized by pressing down on the cover glass with a toothpick or other instrument. Then large numbers of them appear and swim around. This has been called Siphonospora polymorpha, Leptotrichia bucallils Robin, or other names. Enderlein considered this to be the 'ascit', an advanced and dangerous stage of mucor racemosus, a normal creature found in everyone's blood. See Michael Coyle's book 'Advanced Applied Microscopy for Nutritional Evaluation and Correction' for more on this.
I would use one of our Rife devices to apply anti-cancer frequencies to my body to kill the cancer viruses that everyone has thanks to contaminated polio vaccines.
I would take one of the products, MGN-3 or Transfer Factor Plus, which have proven to double or triple peoples immunity (natural killer cells which destroy cancerous cells)! Strengthening the immune system in a natural way is very very important when fighting cancer. (The immune boosting drugs, Interferon or Interleukin 2, have severe side effects ranging from nausea and vomiting to kidney failure. There have been many patients who have died as a result of these side effects.)
I would take the advice of Donald Kelley DD who says that cancer can be dissolved in the body with extra pancreatic enzymes. He says that cancer protects itself from the immune system with a protein shell around the tumors that can be dissolved with these enzymes. He recommends eating little or no animal source protein (which needs lots of pancreatic enzymes for its digestion). Either Full Spectrum formula by HEC, or Enzyme Solution by Family Solutions will work fine. Take 2 just before each meal and 3 once a day on an empty stomach. If this does not eliminate gas and heartburn, try adding betaine hydrochloride at the end of each meal. Start with one per meal.
I would eat apricot kernels daily in order to obtain vitamin B-17 which is known to kill cancerous cells. I would take 1 kernel for each 10 pounds of my body weight (throughout the day). Eskimos with B-17 in their diets never get cancer. Laetrile (a purified version of B-17) has been successfully administered to cancer patients in clinics in Mexico for decades now.
I would make a super strong blood purifying tea to aid the body with its detoxifying of cancer metabolic byproducts (waste) and also to aid in getting out any toxemia that contributed to creating the cancer in the first place. (only toxins and viruses cause cancer). Essiac is one formula invented by the natives in Canada and has been found effective when prepared properly. But I've heard that many versions of it found in health food stores are not made with the original proportions. One tea that I highly recommend is by Jason Winters. He went all around the world asking the herbal medicine men what to use for cancer. He was told of 3 herbs that had a good track record of reversing cancer. He started making and selling it as "Jason Winters Tea". A person should drink half a gallon daily for every 100 lbs of their weight. Here is the recipe:
32oz water, 1/8 cup Burdock, 1 tsp Licorice root.
Put herbs in water and bring to boil. Then turn down heat and cook for 15 minuts.
Then turn heat very low and add: 1/4 cup Red Clover, 1 tsp Chaparral.
Cover and cook for 15 minutes.
I would take colloidal silver daily because Peter Lindemann reported "I have spoken to two women who claim to have cured themselves of breast cancer with colloidal silver. They were both diagnosed by biopsy. After the diagnosis, they took 2 teaspoons of colloidal silver a day until their surgery. One took a home-made product, the other took a silver protein product. In both cases, the biopsy of the removed breast tissue and lymph nodes was cancer free."
I would take at least 1 tbsp daily of cold processed Flax Seed Oil which is known to help reverse cancer. I would read "Fats & Oils by Udo Erasmus" also to learn about good oils and bad (99% of which are sold in health food stores). He says that any oil which has been exposed to light, oxygen, or heat (above 350 degrees) will contain trans-fatty acids which can contribute to cancer. Originally before exposure they were essential fatty acids which are essential to good health. So now only oils processed especially to avoid light/heat/air are recommended by him. Spectrum Naturals and Arrowhead Mills both produce oils this way. (make sure it says so on the label). They are in black plastic bottles.
I would buy a vegetable juicer and start making and drinking juice made from carrots, celery, and spinach. This combination is cleansing and provides enzymes and pure bio-available water that is many times more life enhancing than tap water or any bottled water. It's important for the immune system and also to help clean out cancer-causing toxins in the body. When not drinking juices, I would drink steam distilled water.
I would eat only food that is prepared from fresh food (hopefully grown without pesticides) which would include lots of vegetables (as much raw as possible, especially green leafy ones) and whole grain bread (hopefully home-made). I would eat light foods so that most of the body's energy would go to the immune system instead of to the stomach. I would start the day with cleansing fruits such as grapefruit, orange, lemon, pineapple, apples, and especially grapes. (I've heard of a grape cancer cure where only grapes are eaten the first half of every day and thereafter some grape juice is drank every 15 minutes). Wait 15 minutes for the fruits to exit the stomach before eating any solid food.
I would stop using personal care products that contain cancer causing chemicals and switch to brands that are truly natural.
I would try to breathe fresh air and walk some every day to promote good blood and lymph circulation. I'd try to get some sunshine on my skin every day (on all of it if possible). Cancers hate full-spectrum light (from sunshine or Ott lights). A tumor-susceptible strain of mice lived more than twice as long under full-spectrum as under standard lighting, and rats exposed to full-spectrum light had significantly lessened tumor development. Terminal cancer patients that Dr. Ott knew of personally got well in a rocking chair in the sunshine. Dr. Jane Wright, directing cancer research at Bellevue Memorial Medical Center in New York City in 1959, was fascinated by Ott's ideas. So she instructed progressive-tumor patients to avoid artificial lights and stay outdoors as much as possible that summer. They were not to wear sunglasses or prescription lenses, which block UV light. By that fall, the tumors in 14 of 15 had not grown, and some patients got better; the one whose condition deteriorated sat outdoors but wore prescription lenses.
I would stop drinking fluoridated city water and stop using fluoridated tooth paste. Over half of the U.S.A. population is drinking fluoridated water, which is now linked to cancer and arthritis. Bone cancer has been linked to fluoride in a 10 year study by the National Toxicology Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. This sensational news was disclosed in an exclusive report in Medical Tribune, December 28, 1989, but ignored by the mass media. Also, Proctor and Gamble, the maker of Crest (a fluoride toothpaste), presented studies to the U.S. Public Health Service, showing that fluoride tested positive as a cancer-causing agent at the lowest concentrations used. According to Charles Eliot Perkins, a research chemist sent to Germany to take charge of the I.G. Farben Chemical Industries after World War II, repeated doses of fluoride were used to make people submissive to the government. He wrote, "In the rear occiput of the left lobe of the brain, there is a small area of brain tissue that is responsible for the individual's power to resist domination. Repeated doses of fluorine will in time gradually reduce the individual's power to resist by slowly poisoning and narcotizing this area of brain tissue and make him submissive to those who wish to govern him." I was told the scheme by a German chemist who was an official of the I.G. Farben Chemical Industries and prominent in the Nazi movement of the time. (The Fact Finder, Box A Scottsdale, AZ 85352)
I would establish better communication with God and use all that he makes available to me to create a better tomorrow full of health and good attitudes. I'd try not to dwell on bad happenings in the past (some say cancer is just a bodily manifestation of something mentally that is "eating at you"). I'd read books by Louise Hay and follow her suggestions on how to change on the inside. (She overcame cancer metaphysically).
I'd spend less time in front of the TV and computer, and more time under a tree, caring for plants, and playing with children. TV's and computers put out negative energy, plants radiate good energy, and childrens care-free happiness is definitely life enhancing. I would also throw away my microwave oven which leaks out very deadly energy and makes the food cancer causing.
I would go to a health food store and get:
1) Cat's claw (uncaria tomentosa - it is the bark of a South American tree). It is shown to boost cancer-fighting immune cell production and might help slow growth and lower chances of metastasis. Take up to triple or more directed dosage after building up slowly. Use a guaranteed potency version like Now 5000.
2) Biochem Para-Protect Factors by Nature's Life. After building up slowly, take double recommended dosage for three weeks, then once per week afterward.
3) Pau d'arco, also known as taheebo. Buy in bulk and make tea, or in capsules and use at many times the recommended dosage for three weeks, then recommended dosage afterwards. The recommended dosage for therapeutic effect is 20g per day, taken in tea form if desired.
4) Vitamin C. Take from one or more grams at every meal, or up to 20g per day in divided doses. If it causes diarrhea or stomach upset, take less.
If there are any elimination problems, add more fiber to the diet, preferably flax seeds, or take something like Nature's Secret AM/PM Cleanse, Solaray Tetracleanse, Perfect 7, etc.
I would try to eat vitamin B17 (nitriloside) rich foods more often. These include lentils, lima beans, mung-bean sprouts, alfalfa sprouts, some peas, vicia fava, buckwheat, barley, chickpeas (garbanzo beans), and millet. All berries contain nitrilosides, such as huckleberry, Oregon grape, blackberries, wild strawberry, chokecherries, and especially black raspberries. The richest source that is easily available year round is currants (Sunmaid has dried ones and they are sold near the raisins.) Red grapes provide some as well as some good antioxidants, especially if seeded ones can be found (eat the seeds, too, chewing them well). These foods, combined with pancreatic enzymes, could be very effective in treating many forms of cancer, especially tumors.
I would take a good source of polysacharrides. These are immune stimulants which can be very helpful in the treatment of cancer, and are found in the following. Choose one or more:
-
Reishi mushroom. Can be found in some supermarkets, use like regular mushrooms. They are also available encapsulated in herb shops.
-
Maitake mushroom. Harder to find than reishi, but a much better source of polysacharrides and other compounds. The D-Fraction is thought to be the most active component.
-
Astragalus. A good source for the money, it often costs less than $5 per 100 capsules. Also a rich source of selenium, a very important immune factor and antioxidant.
-
Bovine cartilage. The most concentrated source of polysacharrides, but it is expensive.
-
Shark cartilage. Contains a few, but not nearly as much as the others, and it is very expensive.
-
Aloe juice. An inexpensive source which is especially helpful during chemo and radiation to heal internal ulcerations.
If there were any pets in the household, they would be taken to a vet and thoroughly de-parasitized. Droncit is a prescription remedy that reportedly kills all varieties of tapeworms in dogs and cats with no side effects. Then, get them the prescription for Interceptor, a once-a-month chewable which kills heartworms, roundworms, hookworms, and whipworms. If they can be kept outside then that would be better because parasites are easily transferred from pets and can contribute to an undesirable inner condition that is ripe for cancer.
I would then read the book "The Cure for all Diseases" by Hulda Clark (getting the most recent edition which only comes shrink-wrapped and not any of her older books, like "The Cure for all Cancers" since the newer book has many useful and money-saving updates). In this book she explains the whys and hows of eliminating toxins from your environment and foods (and make-up). Following her advice, I would avoid foods and health care items which contained isopropyl alcohol or any potential petroleum byproduct like propylene glycol, isopropanol, petroleum jelly, etc. These are strong catalysts for cancer. Also, according to Clark, the toxins from a common mold in apple juice (usually worse in organic products according to her) can greatly hamper the immune system (killing immune cells directly) as well as stimulate growth of tumors. High doses of vitamin C (3-10 gm) can be used to overcome the problem (it will help detox mold toxins in the liver).
I would take IP6 (inositol hexaphosphate) and Inositol. There is good lab evidence as well as reports coming back from cancer patients that IP6 is able to prevent, inhibit, and reverse cancer. This material is found in food and is not toxic in even very large doses. If you have a product that contains both IP6 and Inositol, take 3000mg twice a day on an empty stomach. If you weigh much more than 150 pounds, take 4000mg twice a day. If your product does not contain both items, take about 2400mg of IP6 and 600mg of Inositol twice a day. If you weigh much more than 150 pounds, take 3200mg and 800mg.
I would do things to kill internal parasites. Vaxa makes a very good product called 'Parasitin' which kills all kinds of single cell parasites plus worms including tapeworms. 'Clear' is also excellent. Or, the Hulda Clark program using cloves, wormwood and black walnut can be used."
From the website - http://www.excel.net/~jaguar/whattodo.html
Philip Day's website - http://credence.org/
Return to the apricot kernels page
============
[PDF]
The Herbal
Medicine Wheel
an unpublished book by
Gary J. Lockhart
(1942–2001)
© copyright 1983 by Gary J. Lockhart
edited and PDF of part placed online
by Arthur Lee Jacobson in 2007
INTRODUCTION
“I pray, O Thou Master of kindness and mercy, open my eyes that I may discover
the secrets of Thy wonderful deeds and that I may know the peculiar curative pow-
ers which Thou has placed in herbs and minerals, in seeds and flowers, in roots and
leaves, in wood and fruit, in wines and oils in water and in other liquids in living
organisms which are in the heavens above and in the waters under the earth in
simple and composite structures and that through them, I shall tell of Thy might to
all generations in whom Thy greatness shall come . . . .”
The Treasure of Life Joseph Zahalon published in Venice in 1665
The Herbal Medicine Wheel is a record of the history and ideas
behind humanity’s use of plants. The first part is a description of the
world’s medicinal systems in relationship to plants. The second part
concerns the ideas behind the major uses of plants. The third part is
an extensive bibliography of plants arranged by botanical names. The
fourth part is an ethnobotanical bibliography by country.
Pythagoreas, a mathematician and spiritual leader of the sixth
century before Christ, is said to have written the first herbal, which is
now lost. Three centuries later Theophrastus put together a book on
the uses of plants. This was followed by the herbal of Dioscorides and
the writings of Pliny around +70. There was little updating of their
ideas until the herbals of John Parkinson and Nicholas Culpeper came
along 1600 years later. Many herbals in existence today, continue to
echo ideas that have been circulating for 2,500 years.
In the eastern world the first herbal of China was said to have
been written around -3000. In actuality, the art of writing was not
developed enough to convey detailed thought until about -500. The
Chinese ideas that influenced medical thought may be very ancient,
but the central themes began to come together around the time of
Christ. The original writings deal with the philosophy of healing, and
have little information on plants. The vast wealth of herbal lore was
gradually added as the system spread into the hundreds of tribal units
throughout India.
In order to understand plants, it was necessary to understand
their relationship with each other, and proper ways of identification
and classification. Joachim Jung taught school in Hamburg, Ger-
many, until his death in 1657. He published nothing in his lifetime,
perhaps because he could have been accused of heresy. He wrote the
Doxoscopiae, which was published in +1662 and the Isagoge Phytoscop-
ica published in 1679. He described the simple, compound, opposite
and alternate leaf formations. He named the flower parts: perianth,
stamen and style. He discovered the nature of the composite flowers
such as the dandelion. He distinguished plants by their flowers and
gave two names to each plant.
The English botanist John Ray worked with Jung’s ideas and gave
the concept of species its first clear definition. He classified flower-
ing plants by their petals, flowers and fruits. When Linnaeus visited
England, Ray shared his new classification with him.
Linnaeus added his knowledge of the sexual nature of plants to
these ideas. By working with a greater variety of plants and a better
understanding of plant parts, he constructed a tree of plant relation-
ships. In 1753 he presented the fruits of his knowledge in Species
Plantarum. This became the textbook for classifying plants through-
out the world.
A century later there was an explosion in the knowledge of plants
for both medical and economic uses. Botanists traveled by ships and
sought economically useful plants to enrich their countries. They now
had the descriptive tools to understand the relationships between
plants.
The growing power of the science of chemistry made the isolation
and study of chemical components easier. Chemists isolated mor-
phine in +1803, quinine in 1819, atropine in 1831, cocaine in 1860,
pilocarpine in 1875, lobeline in 1921 and reserpine in 1931. Chemi-
cal analysis and testing on animals led to an understanding of how
these drugs worked.
The discovery and use of medicinal plants reached a high point
in the United States around +1880. The West was won, and explor-
ers sent back new information on medicinal plants. Hardly a week
went by without a medical journal reporting on a new plant. Doctors
learned to rely on the indigenous plants, instead of the traditional
European drugs.
By 1900 the situation was changing quickly. Abbot Pharma-
ceutical company had large ads proclaiming “pure alkaloids.” The
ads stated that any doctor using herbs was old fashioned and out of
touch. New operations and synthetic drugs became the trademarks of
the twentieth century. In 1910 Abraham Flexner issued a report that
reformed medical schools. Schools with an unorthodox curriculum
were put out of business.
By 1970 things were beginning to shift towards natural medicine
again. The powerful new drugs were extremely costly, and often less
effective than medical advertisers claimed. There were disturbing side
effects, which could not be ignored. A new awareness was growing
that medicine had become artificial and impersonal. With the change
in consciousness that was labeled “New Age,” we began to look at
“Old Age” knowledge once again. It is my belief that the wise use of
the past will provide tools for the present, and stepping-stones to the
future.
Contents
Introduction
9 Coloring the World
1 The Tribal Tradition
10 The Bones of Plants
2 Herbal Systems of the East
11 The Dark Side of Herbs
3 Chinese Herbal Medicine
12 The Sacred Herbs
4 Herbal Traditions of the West
13 The Lesson of the Oracle
5 The Herbs of Samuel Thomson
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6 The Subtle Energy of Herbs
14 Ethnobotanic Country Bibliography
7 The Herbs of Longevity
15 Common and Scientific Name Index
8 The Power of Odor
16 Bibliography of Herbs
1. THE TRIBAL TRADITION
Socrates: “I mean this: when a carpenter is ill he asks the physician for a rough and
ready cure; an emetic or a purge or a cautery or the knife;—these are his remedies.
And if someone prescribes for him a course of dietetics, and tells him to wrap his
head up and keep it warm, he replies at once that he has no time to be ill, and
that he sees no good in a life that is spent in nursing his disease to the neglect of
his customary employment. He therefore bids goodbye to this sort of physician,
resumes his ordinary habits, and either gets well, lives and does his business, or if
his constitution fails, dies and is rid of his troubles.”
Glaucon: “Yes, that’s the proper sort of medicine in his state of life.”
The Republic book III Plato -370
In north central Wyoming there is a great medicine wheel made
from stones. When the first white settlers moved into the area they
were curious about the big stone wheel. Nobody knew its purpose or
time of building. Scientific studies have tried to link the stone spokes
to the alignments of the planets. The twenty-eight spokes probably
correspond to the twenty-eight poles of the medicine lodge in the sun
dance ceremony. The number reflects an approximation of the lunar
days of the month. The ceremony was a thanksgiving to the creator,
and a time of fasting, sweating and prayer.
There are a number of medicine wheels in Alberta, Canada. In
that area tribal memory asserts that they were built as memorials for
powerful chiefs or medicine men.
Long before a lost Italian on a borrowed Spanish ship blundered
onto these shores, the Americas were the home of millions of people.
The “Empire civilizations” were the Aztecs of the Central Valley of
Mexico, the Maya of Central America and the Incas, who spread over
the entire western backbone of the South American Andes.
There were about 2,000 tribes that occupied North and South
America, and they lived in territories with a radius of 20 to 300 miles.
We know from studies by anthropologists that each tribe had from
50 to 400 plants that were used for medicinal purposes. If only 10 of
these were unique to each tribe, then some 20,000 plants must have
been used as medicine. Hundreds of lists of plants for the tribes exist.
In the far north, the shaman had the medical monopoly. Because
of the cold and isolation, tuberculosis and epidemic diseases were
almost unknown. Many of these people did not live to an old age, for
life was severe in the frozen north. When food was short, often the
older people went out in the cold, for this meant survival for the next
generation.
There are few plants in the area, and healing was done largely
with ceremonies. The most common complaint was pain and bleed-
ing from the lungs, because of the long hunts in the bitter cold. These
people used soup of willows for pain and bleeding. Willows contain a
crude form of aspirin, vitamin C and bioflavanoides. In the southern
Eskimo territories, Labrador tea Ledum palustre was used for influ-
enza. The puffball mushroom was used to stop bleeding.
The eastern provinces of Canada consisted of small bands of
Indians with little close contact. When Jacques Cartier’s men were
wintering at Stadacona along the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1535-36,
they cured their scurvy after Indians told them to drink a tea of the
“amedda” tree. Historians have debated whether this was arborvitae
Thuja occidentalis, or hemlock needles Tsuga canadensis. All green
plants contain vitamin C.
Other remedies recorded for Eastern Canada were sweet flag
Acorus calamus for cholera, and chokecherry bark Prunus virginiana or
P. serotina for diarrhea. Sweet fern leaves Comptonia peregrina leaves
were rubbed on the skin for poison ivy. The bloodroot Sanguinaria
canadensis was used for bleeding, because of its red juice.
On the northwest coast of Canada there was a lack of medical
plants. This was damp rain forest country, and the one plant which
became a cure-all was the “devil’s club” Oplopanax horridus. The com-
mon name is a reminder of the long irritating thorns of this member
of the ginseng family. The plant was extensively traded throughout
the Northwest. Medical reports indicate that it can control diabetes,
when taken as a tea. There is one record of a dying cancer patient be-
ing cured by it.
The Makah tribe along the western Washington coast used the
devil’s club as a good luck plant. After removing the thorns, the
bark of a foot-long root was taken as a purgative during the lengthy
purification rituals. At one time the tribal gamblers used it, for it was
said to enable them to see through the cedar bark bags in which the
gambling sticks were hidden.
In the New England area, there are about eight major tribal
groupings of Algonquin Indians. The early English settlers found
them to be trusting and trustworthy. They were superstitious, but
probably no more so than many English country folk. The settlers
spoke of them as strong, brave, healthy, and long-lived.
These Indians did have problems with malaria, parasites and ear-
aches. They also had eye problems due to the smoke in poorly venti-
lated lodges. Each community had herb doctors that were able to take
care of most simple problems. They generally used a single herb for a
single problem.
The only remedies the settlers had were those imported from
England. They were quick to adopt sassafras, boneset, dogwood,
lobelia and may apple from the Indians. Most of these plants were not
strongly curative of the medical problems—but they were as active as
any English medicines.
During the years 1612-19 smallpox and yellow fever swept over
New England from the ships of the explorers. More than nine out of
ten Indians were believed to have been killed by these diseases, and
the once powerful tribes became a handful of survivors. Governor
John Winthrop wrote in 1634 about the epidemics and added: “So
the Lord hath cleared our title to what we possess.”
In New England, the Iroquois nation was the predominate con-
tact of the early settlers. They originally lived in Canada, but left their
warring Adirondack neighbors and migrated into western New York.
They split into five bands known as the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga,
Cayuga and Seneca. They were jointed by the Tuscarora from North
Carolina. From this “League of six nations” came several ideas which
were written into the U.S. Constitution.
Their medicine men seemed to be especially skillful in removing
bone and bullet fragments from wounds. The wounds were cleansed
with the juice of corn stalks and a poultice of boiled corn tassels.
Cedar bark leg splints were applied to broken bones. An area was left
open over the site of the injury to apply herbal salves.
John Lawson published History of North Carolina in 1714. “We
had a planter in Carolina who got an ulcer in his leg which had
troubled him a great many years; at last he applied himself to one of
these Indian conjurers, who was a Pamticough Indian. Now, I am not
positive whether he washed the ulcer with anything before he used
what I am now going to speak of. This was nothing more than the
rotten bloated grains of Indian corn beaten to a powder, and the soft
down growing on a turkey’s rump. This dried up the ulcer immedi-
ately.”
John Wesley did missionary work in Georgia in the 1730’s. He
remarked: “If any are sick, or bit by a serpent or torn by a wild beast,
the fathers immediately tell their children what remedy to apply. And
it is rare that the patient suffers long; those medicines being quick, as
well as generally infallible.”
The French historian Page du Pratz told the story of a French
trader who lived among the Natchez. He had crippling pain in his
thigh which western doctors couldn’t correct. A Natchez medicine
man cured it in eight days with a poultice. The trader developed an
eye infection and was advised to have it cauterized, which is exceed-
ingly painful. Instead he went to a Natchez doctor who cured his eye
quickly.
The Osage Indians had the legend that their most powerful herb
“man medicine” Cucurbita foetidissima = C. perennis was revealed to
them by a talking buffalo. They used it for nearly everything. It was
believed to give people the power to reach old age.
The largest band of friendly Indians to the south were the Chero-
kees. They believed that Esaugetush Emissee, the “Master of Breath”
had sent good medicines, but Anisgina, the bad spirit, caused disease
and death. According to their legends, animals and humans were once
brothers. Then Anisgina invented weapons and people used them
against animals. As a result the great white bear called a council of the
animals. Since animals couldn’t make weapons, each animal sent a
disease to humanity.
Ginseng called the plants together, and each offered a remedy
for a disease. The first medicine man was told all the remedies, but if
he forgot, all he had to do was walk in the woods and the appropri-
ate plant would nod. Because ginseng was the first plant that offered
itself, it was also the greatest. The medicine man would always bypass
the first three ginseng plants, and then leave red or white beads when
he dug up the fourth.
There are two remaining native American Indian medicine books.
In 1914 the Ritual of the Bacabs was found in the Yucatan. This book
is about the healing rites and herbs of the Mayas. Most of the herbs
cannot be identified. The Bacabs are healing deities. The book speaks
of the evil winds, which cause the disease such as the “tancas-ki”
—the seizure wind, and “coc-ki” —the asthma wind. The Mayas had
a supreme God called Hunab Ku, of whom there was no image.
The Cherokee were the only North American Indians to leave a
written herbal. It is called the Swimmer Manuscript after the name of
the medicine man who put his formulas into the Cherokee language.
Herbal medicine is only a minor part of the book; most of it is com-
posed of chants, songs and magic.
The favorite medicines of the Cherokee were the calamus Acorus
calamus and goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis. Calamus was used for
colds, colic, heartburn, fevers and indigestion. The smell of it was said
to ease tension and calm nerves. Some other common remedies were
rosin weed Silphium laciniatum, senna Senna marilandica and slip-
pery elm bark Ulmus rubra. St. John’s wort Hypericum frondosum was
chewed for diarrhea. Since it produces a dark red color when chewed,
this juice was used to paint the stick balls used in games.
In 1798 Benjamin Barton wrote about the use of goldenseal by
the Cherokees and it passed into the medicine of the settlers. Berber-
ine is the yellow coloring matter, and medical science has found it a
strong antibiotic. Captain Meriwether Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark
expedition, mentioned that it was used for eye infections.
Although there were dozens of food plants, the major food of
the North American Indians was corn Zea Mays. Corn by itself is an
unbalanced food, because it contains very little of the amino acid
lysine. In the Northwest no cereal grains were available. Camas bulbs
Camassia quamash furnished the principal foods. In the dry country
of California, the main Indian food was acorns, soaked in water to
leach out the bitter tannins.
None of the native people used alcoholic drinks on a regular basis.
The Apache prepared a yeast beer from corn soaked in water called
“tulapi” or “tizwin.” The Pima Indians made a beverage from the pear
cactus fruits known as “navait.” Their neighbors, the Maricopa, made
a wine from the giant saguaro cactus flowers. This was never done
on a regular basis and the beverages had to be drunk quickly, or they
would turn into vinegar due to the lack of packaging to exclude air.
A number of herbs were used to give courage or protection. Some
of these may have blocked the adrenaline flow, and consequently the
fear reaction. The Seminole people chewed the top of “spirit weed”
Lachnanthes caroliniana to give them boldness and fearlessness of
speech. The Cheyenne made a strong gray medicine from Anaphalis
margaritacea. The fruits were chewed and rubbed over the body to
give strength, energy and protection against danger in battle. Pana-
mint Indian medicine men drank of tea of Thamnosma montana, so
they would become crazy like coyotes.
Most of the cultures south of the Mexican border used some
form of psychoactive drugs in diagnosis and treatment. The Maztec
Indians of Mexico used the diviner’s sage Salvia divinorum for curing
and divination. This curious mint does not grow in the wild. The sick
person or the shaman eats from 20 to 80 crushed leaves. During the
visions that result, you are supposed to see inside the body, to see the
origin of the illness. The herb gave them the visionary experience of
seeing the tree of heaven with all of the healing herbs around it.
The Cheyenne people of Wyoming called the shrubby cinquefoil
Pentaphylloides floribunda “contrary medicine.” They had a contrary
or protective dance in which the powdered dry leaves were rubbed
over the hands to protect them from injury when they were thrust
into a kettle of boiling soup! The Omaha medicine men applied the
macerated roots of the purple coneflowers Echinacea angustifolia to
their hands. This is a local anesthetic, and they could briefly put their
hands into boiling water.
In 1885 Echinacea came to the attention of the medical profession
as the chief ingredient of “Meyer’s Blood Purifier.” It soon gained a
reputation as the remedy to use for blood poisoning, gangrene, infec-
tions, rabies, smallpox and snake bites.
In 1920 echinacea was given a thorough scientific investigation. It
was given orally or by injection of animals before they were exposed
to disease. Alcohol and water solutions of the herb were used, and
it was given immediately or days before the animals was exposed. It
did not protect guinea pigs against snakebite, tuberculosis, anthrax or
blood poisoning. Humans could react differently, but it appears that
the herb is less valuable than most people believe. It is now known
that the herb does stimulate the immune system and the synthesis of
cartilage.
The Creek Indians of Florida were the originators of the celebrat-
ed black drink Ilex vomitoria. Before a meeting of the tribal council
the leaders drank a tea from seashells. If any of the men vomited they
were considered unfit for military duty. The only thing the war parties
carried was gourds full of black drink. It was believed to help them go
days without food.
The Hopi of the dry Southwest have more information written
on their ceremonies and prophesies than any other American Indian
tribe. The people are famous for their ability to grow corn and veg-
etables on very arid desert land. They use 100 out of the 275 plants in
their area for food and medicine.
Edmund Nequetewa was a Hopi doctor who knew the traditions
and could express himself in English. Before he died in 1969 his
knowledge was studied. His favorite herb was a tea of geranium roots
Geranium caespitosum var. fremontii. He used it for sores, diarrhea and
stomach conditions. He believed it would cure cataracts and he put it
into eyes with an eyedropper. He administered the sand sage Arte-
misia filifolia for constipation and the common sagebrush for stomach
gas. He once used Penstemon eatonii to shrink a tumor on a Navaho
woman. When she refused to pay him, he stopped treating her. The
tumor returned and killed the woman.
Several Indian plants deserve special consideration. During the
great flu epidemic of 1918 both young and old died. The newspapers
of Quebéc had stories describing the curing power of “poglus” Hera-
cleum maximum. The Huron tribe used a tea of the roots to prevent
the flu, and to cure it if necessary.
There are several studies of native medicine in the area of Seattle.
The lowest class of healers used herbs, although they claimed to
receive their inspiration for the use of the herb from their guardian
spirit. When the Indian boys were about ten years old, they were sent
into the woods to find a guardian spirit (tamanamus). After days of
sweating, fasting and praying, a guardian spirit appeared to them and
they returned to the tribe. If the spirit was an eagle, you wore eagle
feathers and claws. If it was a deer, you wore hooves and antlers with
your dress.
The Snohomish people claimed to have only three diseases before
the appearance of the settlers. The meaning of these names is very
general, but they were broadly categorized into English as carbuncles,
neuralgia, and tumors. The main cause of disease was bad spirits. To
cure the problem, you had to drive out the spirit. This could be done
by beating up the person, so the spirit would want to leave, or shout-
ing and drumming loudly, to frighten away the spirit.
Other causes of diseases were power projection known as shoot-
ing the “tamanamus.” A mysterious being called the “swaht-I-uck-tid”
took men’s souls away from them. Then the medicine man tried to
coax the soul back with dances and songs.
A wide variety of herbs, animal parts and insects were used as
remedies. Diarrhea was treated with blackberry roots, Oregon grape
root tea and by chewing the leaves and flowers of Indian arrow wood
Holodiscus discolor.
There was a strong belief in cleansing the body by taking vomit-
ing herbs and laxatives. Whole tribes overdosed on devil’s club to
vomit and purge. The wild cucumber Marah oreganus was also used as
a purge. These herbs were used as first aid, when people accidentally
consumed the death camus plant Zigadenus venenosus instead of the
edible camus.
Pyrola elliptica, pounded to a pulp, was applied for rheumatism.
Arthritics were thrashed with stinging nettles to cause inflammation
and cure their problem. Arthritis was also treated with moxibustion,
much like the Chinese and Japanese healers. The skin was dampened
with saliva and a cone of dry spruce bark was burned over it.
The most common wound treatments were made of deer oil and
bear grease. Many Indians chewed the tips of crab apple branches and
spit those on the wound. The mashed leaves of skunk cabbage were
applied to sores, bruises and fractures.
Nearly every Indian tribe used Acorus calamus root in the areas
where it grew. The Sioux called it muskrat root, and claimed that if
chewed regularly, it would cure diabetes. Many of the early settlers
used it to cure their babies of colic.
Many of us moderns feel that primitive medicine must be based
on natural wisdom, but often this was far from the truth. Maximilian
Bartels wrote a book on natural tribal medicine. “Among the Karoks
of California there are two kinds of Shamans —the root doctors
and the barking doctors. The latter (women mostly) squat like a dog
before the patient and bark for hours. The root doctor with potions,
poultices, etc., medicates the parts where the ailment is discovered.
They believe that witches cause a snake, frog, lizard, or other reptile
to fasten to the body and grow through the skin into the viscera. The
barking doctor first discovers the seat of the disease and then sucks
until the blood flows. She then takes an emetic and vomits up a frog,
which she pretends came from the patient.”
In earlier years, it was no easy matter to be a medicine man. If
you lost a number of patients, you might have your eyes put out or
your skull crushed with rocks. The Seviche Tribe of Arizona had a tra-
dition that the “doctor” had to specify in advance the number of days
the patient would be cured. If he failed three times, he was executed.
One chief, who became a medicine man around 1860, wasn’t very
good at predicting the healing time. He announced that he was bullet
proof, provided that he was allowed to put his magic on the bullets.
He split the bullets in half and put a piece of paper between them.
When the gun fired the halves separated and went around him. He
got away with the trickery, but lost his influence when the secret was
discovered.
A medicine man had to be a psychic healer or at least a good
showman. Many early travelers witnessed the act of sucking on the in-
jury. Several psychic healers were said to be able to remove fishbones
stuck in the throat and heal others by sucking out the illness.
In 1867 the Cheyenne and Sioux met at Rosebud, South Dakota.
White Bull, a Cheyenne medicine man, was completely tied up with
ropes and bowstrings by men who swore that he would never get
loose. Then he was placed in a pit in a sitting position. A huge rock
was tumbled end over end to seal the pit and four large rocks were
placed on top. A lodge of skins was draped over the fortress.
A large crowd watched as a woman called to everyone to sing a
medicine song to aid White Bull. A voice beside her asked who was
in danger. When she turned to answer, she realized that it was White
Bull. The crowd entered the lodge and found that the great rock was
pushed aside and the rope and bowstrings were still in the pit.
The Pawnees had a medicine man who planted a kernel of corn,
watered it and joined the watching crowd. The corn emerged, ma-
tured and produced another ear of corn before their eyes. Several gen-
erations before this, a young Pawnee woman would produce plums
or choke cherries in the middle of winter when a branch was brought
into the medicine lodge. The last person to duplicate this psychic feat
was Chief Red-Fish, who died in 1928. These psychic feats are far
more interesting than bending spoons or starting stalled watches. Ma-
jor Frank North who was in charge of the U.S. Army’s Pawnee Scouts
witnessed these psychic feats.
A substantial part of psychic healing belongs to the field of the
placebo effect. A number of studies indicate that about 34% of people
with common illnesses will be cured or helped by receiving a pill with
nothing in it. Belief is the basis of the cures of many tent preachers.
When I was a college student in Iowa City, an evangelist wrote to the
hospitals and asked the doctors to send him the cases with psychoso-
matic disorders. In the emotional atmosphere of revival meetings with
showmanship and bell ringing, the mental block might be overcome
and the person healed.
It is wonderful to think that Christ figures can wander around
laying on hands and healing people. We all want miracles when we
are sick, yet we don’t think of a miracle as our keeping a positive men-
tal attitude, or going on an exercise program, or eating a healthy diet.
It is just as much of a miracle to be healed with herbs and diet as any
religious experience. This may be what we really need, and often we
can create real miracles.
The Apache Indians had the idea of an undifferentiated super-
natural power flowing through the universe. The power could come
to the individual through a vision in the form of a bird, plant, animal
or heavenly body. At the same time the individual received songs,
prayers and dances that he could use in the healing ceremonies.
The Apache shaman cannot cure all cases, and recognized seri-
ous organic illness. In those cases he might tell the patient, “You
have waited too long to call me.” The shaman works by “tracing” the
patient to find the problem. There is an Apache saying: “You cannot
hide anything from a shaman. They know everything you have done,
and every place you have been from the beginning.”
The shaman arranges a special four-day healing ceremony. The
snake, bear, coyote and owl are symbols of the problem, and they
became part of the ceremony in an attempt to remove the evil of the
disease. The medicine man will appeal to the power to find out why
the patient was afflicted. Was it a taboo, witchcraft, or a lack of regard
for tribal traditions and customs? Often he interrupts the ceremony
to give the patients herbs.
The neighbors of the Apache, the Navaho, held great “medicine
sings.” The singer would collect herbs and ceremonial objects for sev-
eral days. The ceremonies begin at sunset and last until 2 A.M. These
would go on for about a week. The medicine man does most of the
singing, but on occasion all of the participants take part.
The ceremony begins with a bowl of sage leaves, pinyon pine nee-
dles and other bitters being passed around to everyone. Sand paint-
ings are made on the floor of the hogan. At the end of the ceremony,
these paintings are removed on a blanket and spread to the winds.
Indian medicine became a victim of its own mythology. After the
final wars of the 1880’s, the “fighting savages” were transformed into
“noble redmen,” possessed with the supreme virtues of nature. Medi-
cine peddlers saw dollar signs in selling Indian cure-alls. They used
the saying: “If it’s gonna work, you gotta get it from an Indian doc-
tor.”
When Buffalo Bill Cody introduced the Wild West Show, tre-
mendous crowds of the curious came to see the “vanishing Indians.”
This inspired the drug companies to set up a medicine show. The
greatest of these was the “Kickapoo Indian Medicine Company,”
produced by Doc Healy and Texas Charley. The show was set against
a teepee encampment with war dances, ceremonies and songs. An
Indian delivered an impassioned testimonial for “Sagwa” in Kicka-
poo, and the peddler translated it into English. Often what was said
was completely contrary, and the Indians backstage would burst out
laughing. The response was so good, that soon a hundred groups were
touring the country, and the promoters were kept busy recruiting real
Indians. In 1906 the “Pure Food and Drug Act” ended the era of the
Medicine show.
In the preconquest history of Mexico, the first botanic garden
was established by Netzahualcoyotl, the king of Texcoco. His botanic
garden was divided into trees, medicinal plants, fragrant plants and
dye plants. Mexico was divided into a series of tribes, and around the
year +1100 the Aztecs migrated southward into the valley of Mexico.
Through constant wars they conquered the entire valley of Mexico,
and reduced all other tribes to paying tribute. In +1467 Motecuzho-
ma I established the Aztec botanic garden at Huaxtepec, and brought
rare plants from all over Mexico.
The basis of the Aztec medicine system was a calendar of 20-day
cycles. Each calendar day was devoted to an organ such as the liver,
lungs, right eyes, etc. Aztec doctors judged problems by the time of
their origin and the day sign. They might also throw 209 kernels of
corn on a cloth and predict the course of the disease by the pattern.
They would do little rituals and then mold a mixture of corn-dough
on a guava leaf and throw it out on the nearest road. The first travel-
ers who found it sticking to his foot was supposed to get the disease.
With the conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez, many secrets
of Aztec medicine were lost. In 1552 the Badianus Herbal was written
by Martin de la Cruz and translated into Latin by Juan Badiano. It
was sent to King Charles I of Spain in hopes of obtaining support for
a Franciscan boy’s training school. There was opposition because the
other religious orders felt that the Franciscans were too sympathetic
to the Indian ways.
Another source of Mexican herbal tradition was the works of
Friar Bernardino de Sahagan (1629) who wrote about aspects of the
ancient Aztec culture. Philip Hernandez, the physician of King Philip
II spent six years in Mexico gathering material for his Natural History
of New Spain. The complete work described over 1,200 plants, but it
was lost in a fire. A rough draft of the notes for the book was edited
and published.
Two Mexican plants became known throughout the world. The
seeds of Theobroma cacao gave us chocolate and cocoa. When Cortez
returned to Spain after the Conquest, he told how Montezuma was
served this drink in golden goblets. Vanilla Vanilla planifolia comes
from an orchid with pods that look like pole beans. The beans are
cured to produce the flavor of vanilla.
There are many Mexican plants that might have a wider use in
medicine. The seeds of the white sapote Casimiroa edulis are known to
lower blood pressure and produce sleep. The fruit is generally too bit-
ter, but by selecting better tasting varieties, farmers can grow it. The
bark of the tree attracts cockroaches, who eat it and die. It is grown as
an ornamental in California and Florida.
Mexican herb vendors sell Nama stenocarpum to people with
stomach gas, so “the balloon on the inside goes down.” “Salvia de
bolita” is the Spanish name of Buddleja microphylla. It inhibits nasal
secretions, sweating and running noses. It acts like the antihistamine
preparations on the market.
It is ironic that a handful of South American plants are the best
known medical plants of the world, but most have not been inves-
tigated. In North America, a square mile of forest might have six
species of trees, but in the Amazon, the same area would have up to
300 species. In 1630 Francisco Lopez de Canizares learned of the use
of quinine bark to cure malaria. Despite large amounts of research
on synthetic drugs, quinine is still the best remedy. Ipecac Cephaelis
ipecacuanha was once used to treat amebic dysentery. It is sold in drug
stores primarily to induce vomiting.
England has only 1,500 native plants, New Zealand has 2,000
plants, but a small country like Costa Rica has 8,000 plants. The
entire area of North America has about 22,000 plants. A country
like Columbia on the northern part of the Amazon basin has 25,000
plants. The entire Amazon basin has well over 60,000 plants.
There are several secrets that the witch doctors of the Amazon
possess. They apply an herb to the roots of a decayed tooth, and a day
later the tooth loosens and falls out. William LaVarre was traveling in
Dutch Guiana among the Djuka people. A medicine man was stirring
a pot into which purple roots, lumps of whitish gum and dried leaves
were added. A boy with badly bent legs then placed his legs into the
hot solution. Then he was put on a table and his legs were straight-
ened out by hand.
The secrets are being lost at a rapid rate. Many of the tribes are
dying out because the natives have no resistance to Western diseases.
When the tribes convert to Christianity, they often adopt missionary
medicine and discard all of their previous medical knowledge.
Africa contains another vast herbal tradition. It is mixed with
incantations and witchcraft, which makes it difficult to sort out the
valuable plants. Many plants are associated with magic and are used
to drive the spirits out. The “I’ll-fix-you-root” is used for revenge.
Many herbs are known to be dangerous, especially those from the
Senecio, Heliotropium, Cynoglossum and Trichodesma genera. One of
the problems in African countries has been to stop people from using
dangerous herbal medicines.
Many African medicines are based on magic. A tall man is treated
with a tall plant or tree. Someone who lives far from a village will use
an isolated plant. An unkind person would be treated with a bitter
plant and a hairy man will be treated with a hairy plant.
The herbalists of Nigeria pass on their traditions, but they believe
in the “mirror world,” in which their ancestors appear to them during
sleep. When they have difficult cases, their ancestors show them the
right plants in dreams. The Nigerian newspapers reported a case in
which a man consulted many Western specialists. He was sent home
to die, but as a last resort he consulted an herbalist. Ezenduka gave
him herbs, which he obtained from the “mirror world,” and the man
was cured. The entire tribal tradition contains numerous stories of
magic, mystery and possible usefulness.
In the visions of the Sioux medicine man Black Elk several mys-
tery herbs are mentioned. He encountered the grandfathers of the six
directions —this included the earth and the sky. Two of the grandfa-
thers represented herbs. The grandfather of the wintery north where
the white giant lives, gave him an herb of power that fattens a sick
and starving horse.
The grandfather of the earth, slowly became a boy with Black
Elk’s face. The troubled future of his people was represented as a bro-
ken hoop, and a dying holy tree. The hope of the vision was: “From
the same good spirit [his people] must find another strength. It will
be the herb of understanding that bears four blossoms on a single
stem —blue, white, red and yellow, the colors of the four directions.”
Many ethnic groups in India have their own tribal systems apart
from the main medical systems. Peter Hembron gathered the tribal
systems into a codified system known as “Adivasi Ausahd” meaning
“Tribal Medicine.” He called the system “Horopathy.”
The ethnobotany of the tribal tradition may reveal new forms of
healing which could benefit modern day illness. We have hardly done
a serious look at the medicinal plants used by the tribal peoples. The
strength of the healing rituals went beyond herbs; it used psychother-
apy in a way which individuals felt related to them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The journals in this bibliography are listed in alphabetical order. Most
large medical libraries shelve them in this manner. All foreign titles
of articles have been translated for the benefit of my English readers.
The authors of books are listed after the journals.
1. THE TRIBAL TRADITION
American Anthropologist 7:37, 1905 “Some Cheyenne Plant Medicines” G.B. Grinnell
American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 10:227, 1946 “Pre-Columbian Healers of Latin
America” G.S. Gittinger
Ciba Symposia 4:1190, 1942 “Primitive Theories of Disease” S.L. Rogers
Emery University Quarterly 17:86, 1961 “Patent Medicines and Indians” J.H. Young
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 7:287, 1983 “Ethnopharmacology of Ska Maria Pastora Salvia
divinorum” L.J. Valdes III et al.
Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 25:138, 1936 “Medical Practices of the New
England Aborigines” W.T. Bradley
Medical Herald and Physical Therapist 51:327, 1932 “Medicine and Medicinal Practices Among
the Indians of the Northwest” A.C. Jones
Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 60:331, 1951 “Materia Medica and Therapy
Among the North American Forest Indians” A.C. Mahr
Reader’s Digest 37:July/10, 1940 “Bone Bending in the Jungle” W. LaVarre
St. Louis Courier of Medicine 21:138, 1936 “Some Medical Customs, Beliefs and Practices of the
Snohomish Indians of Pugit Sound” C.M. Buchanan
St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal 16:389, 1858 “Medicine Among the Indians”T. Kennard
Hilger, M. Inez Huenun Namku: An Araucanian Indian of the Andes Remembers the Past Normal:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1966
Mooney, James The Swimmer Manuscript Washington C.D.: Smithsonian Institution, 1932
Roys, Ralph Ritual of the Bacabs Normal, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma, 1965
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